The nonbinding resolution, which passed on a voice vote, was introduced by Rep. Steve Cohen, a white lawmaker who represents a majority black district in Memphis, Tennessee.
While many states have apologized for slavery, it is the first time a branch of the federal government has done so, an aide to Cohen said.
In passing the resolution, the House also acknowledged the "injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and Jim Crow."
"Jim Crow," or Jim Crow laws, were state and local laws enacted mostly in the Southern and border states of the United States between the 1870s and 1965, when African-Americans were denied the right to vote and other civil liberties and were legally segregated from whites.
The name "Jim Crow" came from a character played by T.D. "Daddy" Rice who portrayed a slave while in blackface during the mid-1800s.
The resolution states that "the vestiges of Jim Crow continue to this day."
"African-Americans continue to suffer from the consequences of slavery and Jim Crow -- long after both systems were formally abolished -- through enormous damage and loss, both tangible and intangible, including the loss of human dignity and liberty, the frustration of careers and professional lives, and the long-term loss of income and opportunity," the resolution states.
The House also committed itself to stopping "the occurrence of human rights violations in the future."
The resolution does not address the controversial issue of reparations. Some members of the African-American community have called on lawmakers to give cash payments or other financial benefits to descendents of slaves as compensation for the suffering caused by slavery. . . .
So what exactly does yesterday's Congressional vote mean in terms of anything really worthwhile? Anything, that is, beyond mere words?
First of all, a "resolution" is a mere statement of opinion or support by a political body. The word "nonbinding" underscores the lack of real action such resolutions tend to entail. As Wikipedia succinctly puts it,
A non-binding resolution is a written motion adopted by a deliberative body that cannot progress into a law. . . . An example would be a resolution of support for a nation's troops in battle, which carries no legal weight, but is adopted for moral support.
The issue that Congress totally sidestepped is, of course, that of reparations. Most white Americans think that the idea of offering financial compensation to today's African Americans for injustices suffered by their ancestors is nonsense, since, you know, "that was all in the past."
However, other Americans recognize that the effects of those past injustices live on--including members of Congress, as evinced by yesterday's Congressional resolution, in a sentence worth reading again:
African-Americans continue to suffer from the consequences of slavery and Jim Crow -- long after both systems were formally abolished -- through enormous damage and loss, both tangible and intangible, including the loss of human dignity and liberty, the frustration of careers and professional lives, and the long-term loss of income and opportunity.
Right. So how about some compensation, then, for those who continue to "suffer from the consequences"? How long will it be before our federal servants--excuse me, our federal "politicians"--move to the next logical, ethical, moral step on this issue?
I'm not holding my breath. But I'm also not without hope that something can be done in the meantime. In this video, damali ayo demonstrates one way of redistributing income in racial terms--maybe ordinary, goodhearted white folks should follow her lead.
There's more information about damali ayo's conceptual art project, "Living Flag," here.
I was not able to read everything but I read about reparations and I think that would be a huge mistake. Giving money to people will be kind of buying your way of the guilt and the damages of slavery that are still very visible to this day. With reparations, whites can now be like "we don't owe you anything anymore, not our hands are clean and no more complain". But considering we live in a system that has institutionalized racism to some degree (minorities don't have the same opportunities as whites because they are not as privileged in this society, well i should stop here because I can talk about this in a bracket). So considering the system, blacks still have a very pronounced disadvantage compared to the whites. Giving money to descendants of slave will then be an incentive for whites to say now whatever happens to you don't blame on the whites anymore because we have paid our dues. Reparations that should given should be access to college and better high schools, capability to have a house in a good neighborhood, jobs and even better career opportunities, health care, rehab instead of jail for drug and alcohol abusers (we are talking about all minorities here, especially blacks), etc. Giving money won't help black communities and will definitely add to the dominance of white culture, it would be another form of welfare, aka a band aid to cover up the wound, rather than the operation to fix and heal the wound.
ReplyDeleteThis is just my personal take on reparations. As for apologies, they are overdue. Apologizing doesn't make you less guilty but helps the victims forgive you and be less angry.
and will definitely add to the dominance of white culture
ReplyDeletehow and why would reparations add to the dominance of white culture?
mnb,
ReplyDeleteI don't think that is necessarily a bad idea, reparations as focused investment in the educational system for minorities. Ultimately, it should probably depend on the input of said minorities though, and not simply dictated from on high.
Interesting post. I would like to hear more of your thoughts, and thoughts of others, on the topic of reparations. I reflect on the lip service and multiple failures of the white government's weak attempts to materially compensate descendants of original American peoples, who were targets of genocide. I wonder about the viability of any plan for reparations that is devised when the powers that be are overwhelmingly white. On the other hand, there are many easy excuses for inaction, one of which I have just mentioned. For a variety of reasons I doubt reparations will ever gain a serious foothold in any sort of policy debate, but let's say it did.. where do we go from there? What could this look like?
ReplyDeletea band aid to cover up the wound, rather than the operation to fix and heal the wound
ReplyDeleteI don't know what "fixing" the wound has to do with Reparations. In fact, I don't have an idea of what you're talking about especially with this curious "giving money" idea of your and the welfare comparison.
Paying restitution goes on regularly in this society without all this other stuff attached. For some reason -- and clearly for no good reason -- people feel they have to be concerned about what gets done with compensation for slavery/Jim Crow and most people do out of complete ignorance of what the plans would be... that, or, for some reason -- and clearly for no good reason -- people feel like they have to say what forms Reparations must come in.
blacks still have a very pronounced disadvantage compared to the whites
Which has nothing to do with Reparations, per se. It's funny how talk about Reparations gets diverted into talk about the fundamental inequality of the system that was supposed to be fixed circa 1865. Then, later circa 1965 or so. So, considering that systematic response, this argument about Reparations doing something that was already supposed to be done is bankrupt -- totally without merit.
Giving money won't help black communities
Yeah, right. The money is of such non-importance that's why Reparations rallies are drawing crowds full of White supporters like Obama did in Germany and Seattle, WA. Yeah, the money is such non-importance and will have such a non-impact that no one ever argues that Reparations will put stress on the U.S. economy. (I know you know my eyes are rolling with heavy sarcasm.)
Yo Nquest,
ReplyDeleteWhile I respect your opinion, I do feel that, unlike jw, the linden branch and annie, you are taking a rather aggressive approach to respond to my comment. I couldn't cover everything but I never said money was not important, dude, it's America. I'm not a retard. Now, what I was trying to say if little money (reparation check let's say) to all descendants of African Americans will not cut it. I thought people when asking for reparations were talking about giving money to individuals and in that regard, I believe they might want to think about it again. That's why I talked about welfare. Welfare helps people cover for very basics day to day needs and while that helps survive, a lot of concerns about dependency are raised. Also, I'd rather have money to pay for college, rent and/or health care while working part-time to cover needs such as food, transportation, clothes, medicine, etc. I was comparing reparations to that in the sense that reparations money would be giving once and even if it might seem like a lot of money (unless it's like 100 000 to everyone), the money will be used for very short term and people will be back to square while society (ruled and governed by predominantly whites) would now be able to say 'we've done our part, now it's YOUR fault if you're suffering and poor'.
I believe I did say that if there is to be any reparations, it should be big money invested into opening doors not only for blacks but for all minorities (like investing money in poor neighborhoods for better schools and housing as well as a more environmentally friendly atmosphere in those areas, bring back some of the taxes that were cut for the profit of the wealthy so more money can be invested in programs to help the less fortunate as well as medicare/medicaid and welfare, more 'non athletic' scholarship and financial assistance should be given to minority students to pursuit higher degrees, I can go on and on), now THAT would be true reparations. Anything else, like giving money to individuals is BS (again, please feel free to prove me the contrary).
You're saying "It's funny how talk about Reparations gets diverted into talk about the fundamental inequality of the system that was supposed to be fixed circa 1865." I thought the idea of reparations came from the fact that a lot of African Americans today suffer from a system that was initially created in the advantage of the dominant ethnic population, Caucasian Americans. Correct me if I'm wrong, but don't be condescending or insulting please.
jw,
When I say that, I mean that it would another for the system to control people, to make them feel that whatever happens to them, whatever financial and social situation they are in, it is absolutely their fault. I have learned to see things more from a social science point of view rather than an individual or psychological point of view and hence, I do believe that while are accountable for things they do, they do a lot of those things because of the way the society is shaped, the pressure it puts on them, etc. Saying that people are not to blame for their failure is being hypocrite but they do things they do mostly because of the environment they live, more precisely, society. Again, feel to correct me if I'm wrong and show me the light.
The Linden Branch, I'm with you this. Like I mentioned above if people are given considerable amount of money to make good investments, then maybe that would be a good idea. Again, they need to have those options out there, the option to invest. We know in real estate, there's a lot of prejudice as well as in a lot of other industries where one can invest so if people can help receivers of reparations know their options in terms of investment, then that would good. We all know that a major problem in situation where people have a lot of money and they blow it up, it's not just because they are materialistic. usually they just don't know, they are not educated about those things. It ultimately comes down to that, education.
Annie, I would love to discuss more about my thoughts with you so I will take my time and write a more detailed post on view.
what I was trying to say if little money (reparation check let's say)
ReplyDeleteNo. We won't say "reparations checks." I don't respect your opinion because it's not informed and you prefer to talk in hypotheticals based on both unacceptable biases and ignorance.
I thought people when asking for reparations were talking about giving money to individuals and in that regard
You thought that based on what part of what you heard from Charles Ogletree and the Reparations Coordinating Committee? You thought that based on what part of what you heard from Deadria Farmer-Paellmann? You thought that based on what part of what you heard from N'COBRA? You thought that based on what part of what you heard from Randall Robinson? You thought that based on what part of what you heard from Robert Westley?
I believe I did say that if there is to be any reparations, it should be big money invested into opening doors not only for blacks but for all minorities
That's not reparations. Japanese-Americans were compensated for the internment fiasco (a time when Blacks were lynched, "torn from the land", uprooted via sundown towns and none of that was turned into something for "all minorities." All the more reason for me not to respect your opinion when you want to bastardize the concept and constantly turn it into something it is not and approach it from an angle of ignorance.
Correct me if I'm wrong, but don't be condescending or insulting please.
ReplyDeleteYour "thoughts" are insults because your thoughts are based on bs.
What "system" was fixed as a result of reparations to Japanese-Americans?
Your "thought" doesn't make sense because I already addressed it. The "system" was supposed to be fixed and should be fixed as a matter of the USA upholding the principles of democracy, etc. enshrined in the Constitution. Fixing that isn't "reparations."
That doesn't repair something done to African-Americans. And whatever comes from the US fixing its democracy will benefit everyone just like the civil rights acts/movement benefited more than just African-Americans.
Reparations, however, are specific. It's about specific, if even exclusive, wrongs -- injuries, damages or losses suffered. Reparations then is about compensating for those specific wrongs...
society (ruled and governed by predominantly whites)
ReplyDeleteOh, let's hear this. You've been rather specific in your pontification about what Reparations 'money' should go to or what material form it should come in. Go ahead and be just as specific about what you think "people asking for reparations" might want to think about in terms of dealing with the "society ruled/governed by whites" factor.
What "system" changing, White power dissolving measure have you come up with as a matter of reparations to African-Americans?
Oh, wait... Even after all your "I thought the idea of reparations came from the fact that a lot of African Americans today suffer from a system that was initially created in the advantage of the dominant ethnic population, Caucasian Americans" talk you still presumed that the system would remain unchanged save for "access to better schools", etc.
In fact, your position was that "the dominance of white culture" would remain in place but would be enhanced by a monetary reparations regime.
So, really.
considering we live in a system that has institutionalized racism
You took the system as a given and said nothing about unseating White rule. You can't effectively address fundamental inequality until you address the inequity of power.
MNB, the first thing I would like to know from you is: When in the American history was a white collective feeling responsible for their own system, which systematically has denied human rights to People of Color?
ReplyDeleteWhen in American history didn't whites blame others?
Already now the possible election of Obama is for many whites some sort of absolution, an easy way for many to avoid again responsibility.
When you believe an apology is good because it makes people "less angry" - what are you talking about???
Tell me how reparations made Israel dependend from Germany. Tell me where Germany has the power to tell Israel anything because Germany paid reparations and we can go stright to Germany: Tell me the situation of Jewish people in Germany.
Reparations is just this: Reparations. It is in no way anything to 'fix' something.
I personally am not interested in white people's feelings when it comes to reparations and their weird way to show their antipathy for African Americans by rejecting reparations.
Before you comment on reparations it would be a sign of politeness to inform yourself first before you come up with your weird thoughts.
White America has no problem to live [as a collective] with the wealth they were able to accumulate because of slavery, Jim Crow and continued discrimination. They have no problem to live and continue the legacy of slavery.
jw,
ReplyDeleteSoooo...South Asians can ask for reparations form the British, Jews can ask for reparations from the Egyptians, Greeks, from...say Turks, (and vice versa)?
At on point in time, our ancestors were probably slaves to another's ancestors.
Giving out a token cheque won't do anything.
The only way to fix the lasting damage that Colonial and...er, shit America is still unfair to minorities...anyway, the only way to revert (to a certain degree anyway) the injustices inflicted on minorities (note, not blacks..ALL minorities) is to create a range of social welfare programs that will help those in the lower rungs of the socia-economic ladder to get better education, health care and jobs.
But this won't happen. Obama is centre-left, so he won't bother with the proles, McCain (despite his record of bi-partisan work) won't do anything either.
At on point in time, our ancestors were probably slaves to another's ancestors
ReplyDeleteand your point is?
But could you please tell me the title of the book you read? Must be something like: "How to comment on certain issues without thinking on my own"
Macon, a question to you: Why do you never challenge problematic answers on your blog when you believe that "changing minds and hearts" is possible?
ReplyDeleteMy point? My point is that if the US gov't were to make reparations to descendants of slaves it would then eman that everyone else would be (in principle) be entitled to ask for the same from other governments.
ReplyDeleteSecondly, (a point you did not care to address) what would these reparations actually fix? Would they enable people to have better lives?
But could you please tell me the title of the book you read?
Eh? So...do you just regurgitate what you read in books, without making your own thoughts?
Please address my point on social welfare, don't avoid it.
you give back what you have stolen, just simple.
ReplyDeleteWhat recipiens of reparations do with that is not your business.
Heh. What you've stolen. Are by any chance in grade 8? Slaver, though a very evil and exploitive economic system, is just that - an economic system. To follow your logic, Indians should ask the British gov't for reparations for economic slaver (for colonization of the Indian sub-continent was just that).
ReplyDeleteSo...you still didn't answer...what's the purpose?
Just for the sake of it? If the US gave every descendant of African slaves, say, 1 dollar, would that be enough. Symbolic, innit?
The naiveté of some people like you is simply astounding.
It is my business. I didn't profit from slavery (not directly, anyway), so why should I have taxes that could be put towards something useful (healthcare, education) be spent on some idiotic notion of payback?
And as a Russian of partial Tatar origin, can I ask the Mongolian gov't to give me money since they probably enslaved my ancestors?
are you the same way emotional when your government goes on war with your tax money?
ReplyDeleteAnd FYI, Jim Crow ended 1964. Not so distant in the past.
And when you think you deserve reparations, I won't hinder you to start your movement.
Reparations on the form of money is only the beginning.
ReplyDeleteThen on to actual equality and not just the equal opportunity to act "white." Truth in history and more diverse literature in schools.
I actually have a working list. But suffice it to say reparations in the form of financial payment is only the beginning.
[Okay, time out exvanp, I'm not going to publish that last comment. Go sit in the corner and cool off for awhile, and if you then have anything more substantive to say, you'll be welcome to return.]
ReplyDeleteexvanp
ReplyDeleteLet's not get into the reparations western Europe owes all over the world.
Jews and Egypt? That's just craziness. That was well over 2thousand years ago.
Slavery just ended less than 2 centuries ago. Peonage and other legalized forms of slavery lasted into the 40s. Racial terrorism lasted into the 60s and 70s, including but not limited to removing entire city populations like Shiites and Sunnis.
Chances are, you have gained tangibly for the exploitation of African Americans. Think about the GI Scholarships and FHA loans that few blacks received. Think about redlining that continues today. Think about the large and growing disparity in wealth accumulation.
http://www.salon.com/opinion/feature/2007/11/28/race_poll/
I'll have to finish reading the article myself. But, poor whites are more likely to own their homes than better off blacks due to inheritance.
As for other minorities? Well, I think something can be said for giving the Southwest back to Mexico.
no1kstate,
ReplyDeleteIf you read one of my earlier posts, I agree that there is institutionalized racism in the US (and many other countries).
All I said is that I think it'd be a far better use of our time if we tried to actually fix (though i doubt that's actually possible, it's so deeply ingrained, but still we must try), rather than making token reparations that will do little good other than serve as an excuse for politicians to proclaim a "new age of equality" or some other such idiocy.
Reparations to African Americans could and probably would lead to Black independence and self-determination and that's probably the fear white people have. No more control
ReplyDeleteBlack independence and self-determination
ReplyDeleteDo you actually believe that a cheque would lead to this?
Really?
exvanp wrote:
ReplyDeleteSoooo...South Asians can ask for reparations form the British, Jews can ask for reparations from the Egyptians, Greeks, from...say Turks, (and vice versa)?
At on point in time, our ancestors were probably slaves to another's ancestors.
Giving out a token cheque won't do anything.
The only way to fix the lasting damage that Colonial and...er, shit America is still unfair to minorities...anyway, the only way to revert (to a certain degree anyway) the injustices inflicted on minorities (note, not blacks..ALL minorities) is to create a range of social welfare programs that will help those in the lower rungs of the socia-economic ladder to get better education, health care and jobs.
Reparations from the government of the United States of America is due to ONLY two groups, they are the Native Americans (aka American Indians) and the descendants of the black Africans who were brought here to be slaves. That is it!
The U.S. government owes no other "minority" group, living in this country, reparations except for and for the following circumstances:
The Japanese who were interned illegally during WW2 are due compensation for what was really mass theft of their land (many were farmers) and property/businesses by white Americans. Although, the US government did pay them reparations, it was just a drop in the bucket compared to the true value of what was stolen from them.
Also, presently, the Muslims and/or Arabians, who are being held in the prison on Guantanamo will need to be paid reparations for what will be revealed to be, is revealed to be, illegal incarceration and torture.
All those other groups that you mentioned at the beginning of your comment need to take up their request for reparations with those specific governments.
Do you actually believe that a cheque would lead to this?
ReplyDeleteReally?
ask Israel
The way some of you here discuss on this post is really disgusting to me (yeah, i'm going to have to be a little harsh because it seems that's how things work when you start talking about issues of race). Nquest and jw, don't tell people their opinions are rubbish just because you do not agree, respond and say why you disagree. You disrespecting my point as if none of what I said makes a little sense make you questionable. Macon D, I don't know what exvanp posted but I believe you can tell him to cool off while posting his comment (unless it's insulting and offensive). We can judge for ourselves if he's a little out of control. For all of you who remotely think reparations are going to make Black Americans independent, please tell me what kind of reparations we are talking about here. None of you have really explained what YOU mean or better, what IT means (seems you are know-it-all) to have reparations for Blacks and Natives. Please tell me, I hunger to know since I am so ignorant. Nquest (yes, you again), who the heck are all those people you even mentioned in your (failed) attempt to insulted me?? WHO? jw, like exvanp said, just because someone says something in a book doesn't make them right. I don't have to write the bibliography after every comment I post (or anyone for that matter), otherwise, you post yours too.
ReplyDeleteAll I see here is people trying to crush and insult other people's intelligences here, quoting a couple of sentences from LONG paragraphs that people post to give their opinions about some issues. I don't see your opinions and ideas and solutions to address the matter of apologies and reparations. All I see is bold and italic quotes and harsh, empty responses. You can disrespect people's opinions, but don't disrespect them, please.
And please, Macon D, this post is very clean and just a reply to many harsher comments above so please don't delete. It took some time and effort because I do respect people on here... at least for now.
MNB
ReplyDeleteI didn't call your comment rubbish but I wrote: 'Before you comment on reparations it would be a sign of politeness to inform yourself first before you come up with your weird thoughts.'
Google is your friend to find all informations.
To mnb, jw, and others concerned about how I handle comments here:
ReplyDeleteTo answer jw's question above ("Why do you never challenge problematic answers on your blog when you believe that 'changing minds and hearts' is possible?"), I usually don't jump into the conversations inspired by my posts because I've already had my say--in the posts. If people ask me direct questions in the comments, I do usually answer those, but I've found that when any sort of debate arises and the blog's "owner" jumps in, the debate either dies, or some of the participants drop out. I also don't see a need for me to challenge "problematic answers," especially those displaying degrees of ignorance and/or racism, because this site now has a lot of smart, informed readers who always seem to jump in and do that instead--in most cases, I would just be repeating what they're saying. Finally, I also find that addressing problematic comments effectively can be very time consuming; I'm already spending too much of my spare time on the front-page posts here, and spending what time I do have on those posts strikes me as more worthwhile.
To address mnb's comment on the way discussions tend to go here--I've received several comments of that sort, and quite a few more email messages, complaining about how discussions often go here. These emails, especially, have been from people who basically say that they're interested in the blog, but that the often "toxic" atmosphere of the comments sections sometimes keeps them from reading it.
"Aw, too bad!" some others here might say. "Can't take the heat, stay outta the kitchen, you're more racist than you'll ever know, including the way you're trying to impose your discussion style on others," and so on. However, those emailers are often white, and often new to the idea of even thinking about "whiteness," and thus empowered over others in ways they don't even realize--yet. They're the kinds of readers, that is, who especially should be reading a blog like this (in my humble opinion); they usually live and work in ways that directly affect non-white people, and so yes, I do think that changing their "hearts and minds" can happen, and that doing so can in turn affect lives that suffer from ongoing white supremacy (including white lives). Keeping the comments section "civil" may well be keeping the discussion going their way, or maybe it's a sort of polite middle-class way, but, "civility" does help to keep such people around, and it does make them feel more welcome here, and even, as one emailer wrote, "safe."
Some readers, who have a much higher level of understanding about white supremacy, have written that they don't think this blog does enough to directly define, deconstruct, and call for concerted action against ongoing white supremacy. But if this blog was all about that, at such an advanced level, then I'd be "preaching to the choir"--most of the white readers I just mentioned would take one look and never come back again.
I do think that anti-racist work should be painful at times for white people, and it often is for me. But as I'm trying to say here, I'm also leery of chasing away newcomers because they find the comments sections painful. Simply getting white people who haven't thought critically about their whiteness to begin doing so is, I think, a productive, radical, progressive, etc. effort.
And yes, insulting or dismissive comments, like the one that I disallowed here by exvanp, do cause aversive feelings to arise in newbies. I also think that, aside from their effects on some readers, such comments do little to advance the discussion. I don't disallow many comments, but those that offer assessments of the person behind (or rather, supposedly behind) other comments are prime candidates. I also find that lengthy individual comments (like this one, actually) can bog down and sometimes kill a comments thread, but I have yet to delete any of those. In that regard, I think we should all keep in mind that the longer a comment is, the less chance there is that others will read it, let alone respond to it. That's especially true if you post two or three such comments in a row.
I'm all for "free speech," letting the chips fall where they may, and so on. But I'm more for keeping as many readers coming back as I can, especially, as I said, certain new ones. I'm something of a newbie too, in terms of understanding whiteness, and in terms of writing a blog and moderating its comments. These are my thoughts on the latter, so far, and I welcome other thoughts, especially since my methods are still evolving.
Thank you for posting this.
ReplyDeleteI'd never seen or heard about Damali until someone pointed me to your post. Great job, great blog. Will definitely be following your postings and making comments and contributions in the near future.
Feel free to check out my blog also, http://boboleechronicles.wordpress.com. I'm on a break from posting at the moment, but feel free to visit and comment!
I came across this CNN article
ReplyDeletecalled "Obama: Slavery reparations
not the answer".
http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2008/08/02/obama-slavery-apology-reparations-not-enough/
I hope it helps add to the discussion.
I am an 18 year old white male, descendant equally from white German immigrants and native Americans. No one within my family ancestry going as far back as I am able to track has, at any point, owned a slave of any ethnicity.
ReplyDeleteThat said, I am fully able to understand that where I am today (comfortable, in suburbia, floating *just* above the debt line but nonetheless above it) is a direct causal effect of being favored by a government which is rooted in systemic inequality. My own feelings of detachment towards this inequality are irrelevant; I may not be responsible for you having less, but I DO have more as a result, and I can't escape that.
To this end I donated a little over a thousand dollars of inheritance money from my father's death, between the Hurricane Katrina recovery efforts and the UNCF.
I don't have (what I would feel would qualify as) the requisite level of understanding of sociology, economics, or political science to comment on government legislation regarding reparations. I sincerely believe, though, if more people of my race could understand their intrinsic entitlement is the result of an imbalanced system, they might (ideally, at least) do as I've done out of the goodness of their hearts. This talk of 'Well *I've* never done anything to black people' is the first barrier to a deep-seated ignorance on our parts. We can blame the media or the government all we like, but there it is.